HypermediaInEducation\nSourceS\nHypermediaAndHypertext\nReadingTheoryAndHypertext\nStudentsAsUsers\nStudentsAsAuthors\nPotentialForEducation\nReferenceS

I would suggest the greatest educational contributions to the new age of technology and learning are free, or close to free. The Internet, as a learning resource or repository of information, is the greatest interactive library that humanity has ever known. Individuals now have immediate access a global database that can provide information (and sometimes misinformation) that was once exclusive to specific subject matter experts. This immediate access to information is unprecedented and can be mostly attributed to the development of the Internet and the media of hypertext and hypermedia. \n\nWhat characteristics and distinct attribute traits characterize hypermedia and hypertext from other traditional media? Shapiro and Niedrhauser (2003) suggest there are four defining features that distinguish hypertext and hypermedia as unique:\n\n 1. They are non-linear.\n 2. They provide the user flexibility of information access.\n 3. They provide a higher degree of learner control than \n traditional media sources.\n 4. They place a greater metacognitive demand on the user \n (one must monitor one own learning, make choices and \n make decisions as to learning paths and content to be \n learned.\n\n\n Hypertext refers to any digital medium or program that allow users to read, create or edit links between different bodies of text or nodes of information. The most common examples of hypertext are web sites and the language commonly associated with their development is Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). \n\n Hypermedia refers to any digital medium that allows the user to create, edit and follow linked nodes of media (other than text) such as images, video and audio. The most common example of hypermedia (on the Internet) would be FLASH, which can create interactive multi-media presentations using combinations of animation, video and/or audio.\n\nDespite the fact that hypermedia and hypertext are foundational to the underlying structure of the Internet, they are not exclusive to it alone. There are many educational and informational hypermedia resources that exist as stand-alone applications, digital encyclopedias, language programs and other informational CD Roms or DVD's. \n \n\n

[<img[Hypertext and Hypermedia small.jpg][Hypertext and Hypermedia.jpg]]\n\n\n\n\n< CLICK IMAGE FOR CONCEPT MAP\n\n\n\n\n\nThis document is an exploration of the literature, research and methods relating to hypermedia in education. In particular, this document explores the roles of students as users and authors of hypertext and hypermedia in education, while at the same time exemplifying the hypertext environment called a wiki. A wiki is an editable hypertext html document, often open source, allowing for multiple users to co-write, add or change a shared piece of writing. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org) is the best-known example of a wiki, providing a shared online Internet encyclopedia that registered users can edit, update and contribute to on a regular basis. This wiki was created in part as a project for an educational technology readings course at Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec and is an example of an interesting HTML/Java program called Tiddlywiki created by Jeremy Ruston. Tiddlywiki (http://www.tiddlywiki.com) allows the wiki author to create and edit a wiki using nothing more that a standard web browser and any computer. No server or server space is required as the document is saved as an editable HTML file on the users computer. All edits to the original Tiddlywiki file are saved in the document folder and can be edited or changed using any Internet browser. \n\n

Hello and welcome to the Tiddlywiki of Lex Milton. This Wiki is part of a project I have developed through a course taken in my Masters of Educational Technology programme at Concordia University in Montreal. My background includes experiences in:\n\n•Information technology: computer systems development, instructional design & innovative pedagogies; knowledge in networking, Flash programming, web and graphic design, and multimedia production. \n\n•Music: Professional musician, experience includes Montreal choir ‘Mruta Merti’, jazz and rock & roll ensembles (too many to mention), sound and video engineering/production. Also involved in stage & multi-media production.\n\n • Education: 12 years as an educator (1994-present). 10 years as an elementary music teacher both classroom music and introductory band. Background in teaching English (as first and second language), music education, elementary curriculum, and adult basic education. Experience in all core educational subject areas, art education and computer education. \n\n• Technology and education specialist: Currently completing a Masters of Educational Technology at Concordia University. Special interests include curriculum and instructional design coupled with creative applications of technology in education (multi-media, design, performance etc...). \n\nI am originally from Vancouver Island, British Columbia and now reside in Montreal as a student, musician and teacher. If you wish to hear my music or get another perspective as to who I am you can also see my music web site at http://lexmilton.net.\n

HypermediaInEducation\nSourceS\nHypermediaAndHypertext\nReadingTheoryAndHypertext\nStudentsAsUsers\nStudentsAsAuthors\nPotentialForEducation\nReferenceS\nLEx

The potential to use hypermedia and hypertext in education is significant. The application and diversification of hypermedia in is various forms is changing each year, and thus augmenting the potential tools of education and even social communication. HTML, Web composers, Flash, Wikis and Blogs are but just a beginning to the manifestations of hypertext and hypermedia tools. It seems impossible to speculate how these tools may evolve, yet one trend that seems to be increasing each year is the social phenomena of collaborative communication tools such as Wikis and Blogs. Wikis and Blogs also present a hypertext/media environment where the shared collaborative work of the authors in essence creates a community of learners (COL) in which learners can \n\n “…adopt discourse structure, values, goals and beliefs of community…[and]…can be fostered by having the participants conduct research (reading, studying, viewing, consulting experts) and share information in the pursuit of a meaningful, consequential task” (Jonassen,1998, p. 6)\n\n In terms of education, research suggests the learner must have an active role in their learning process. The most supportive research pertaining to the learning benefits of hypertext/media suggest the greatest learning gains are when the student is in the role of the author or designer. Furthermore, the semantic node like structures of hypertext and hypermedia provide a supportive model for the processes of learning and transfer as suggested by epistemological theory of Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro et al. 1995). \n\nAlthough more research is required to explore the benefits of using hypertext and hypermedia in education, I would suggest that studies show them to be potentially powerful educational media when used in the right contexts. The educational approach, methods of instruction, presentation of objectives, outcomes and content used are foundational in defining the educational effectiveness and subsequent usability of any hypertext or hypermedia based learning activity. Educational success or failure lay in the design, pedagogy and methods used. \n\n

Although there is no conclusive research that clearly outlines how we learn from hypertext, Shapiro, Niederhauser (2003) and other researchers suggest potential similarities with the contemporary reading theories of cognitive flexibility theory (CFT) and the cognitive integration model (CIM).\n\nThe cognitive integration model (Kintsh, 1988) presents a three-stage approach to the processes involved in reading:\n\n1. Text and word decoding.\n2. Construction and mental model (understanding) of the factual information presented.\n3. Creating a situational model that integrates prior knowledge with the new information been read.\n\nCognitive flexibility theory, a constructivist epistemological model presented by Rand J. Spiro (Spiro et al., 1995) also correlates the active engagement of prior knowledge to learning from text, yet it goes further by theorizing that readers recreate new mental models; reconstructions that represent a combination of prior knowledge with what is been learned. Cognitive flexibility theory also assumes that learning and representations of learning are complex and multi-faceted (schema) that is deconstructed in order to create new mental constructs. In particular, CIP looks at the nature of learning in complex, ill structured domains through multiple conceptual representations such as associated schema, themes, intellectual perspectives or analogies that “reflect more accurately the multifaceted nature of complex knowledge” (Spiro & Jacobson, 1995. P?) From this perspective, CIP in itself is analogous to the linked nodes and connected associations of hypertext and hypermedia. Hypertext and hypermedia present a potential model for the way humans naturally link conceptual schema and ideas - often a very organic, personal and non-linear function.\n\n

Azevedo, R., Cromley, J. G., Winters, F. I., Moos, D. C., & Greene, J. A. (2005). Adaptive human scaffolding facilitates adolescents’ self-regulated learning with hypermedia. Instructional Science, 33, 381–412.\n\nBromme, Rainer, Stahl, Elmar (2002). Writing and learning: Hypertext as a Renewal of an old and close relationship –Introduction and overview. In Bromme and Stahl (Ed.), Writing Hypertext and Learning - Conceptual and Empirical Approaches (pp. 1-12). Amsterdam: Pergamon\n\nBromme, Rainer, Stahl, Elmar (2002). Learning by producing hypertext from reader perspectives: Cognitive Flexibility Theory Reconsidered. In Bromme and Stahl (Ed.), Writing Hypertext and Learning - Conceptual and Empirical Approaches (pp. 40-61 ). Amsterdam: Pergamon\n\nDillon, A., & Gabbard, R. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control and style. Review of Educational Research, 68, 322-349.\n\nJacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4), 301-333.\n\nJonassen, D. H. & Reeves, T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers as cognitive tools. In Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 693-719). New York, NY: Mc Millan \n\nJonassen, David (2000). Constructivist learning environments on the wev: Engaging students in meaningful learning. Retrieved July 11th, 2006 in PDF form from the Singapore Ministry of Education. File name D1.PDF at http://search.moe.gov.sg/servlet/SearchServlet?category=moe-home&keyword=jonassen\n\nKintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review, 95, 163-182.\n\nNiederhauser , Dale, Shapiro, Amy, (2004).Learning from Hypertext: Research Issues and Findings. In David Jonassen, . Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology, 2nd Edition (pg. 605-620). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.\n\nO’Sullivan, M., Scott, T. (2000). Teaching Internet Information Literacy: A Critical Evaluation. Retrieved June 23rd, 2006 from http://www.infotoday.com/mmschools/mar00/osullivan&scott.htm\n\nEdutech Wiki (2006). Hypertext. Retrieved June 11th, 2006 from \nhttp://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Hypertext\n

Students in as users and authours in a hypertext and hypermedia environment

Education and Hypermedia

As hypermedia in education is a relatively young, contemporary academic research and bodies of literature in this field are still developing. Lack of conclusive research as to the educational benefits and potential applications of hypertext and hypermedia in education have left this an area ripe for study. This wiki is an exploration of the various forms of hypermedia and hypertext in education and the potential they have as educational tools, particularly in the context of the students as users and authors. Sources gathered in the formation of this wiki include references to related academic literature, research and information gathered from the Internet itself. Where applicable all sources are sited and can be viewed in the references section of the main menu. Ironically, the Internet and the development of hypertext and hypermedia environments on the World Wide Web have significantly challenged traditional views of intellectual property rights, both in academia and in the information/media industry. The concept of copyright is a changing paradigm and those industries and institutions that enforce copyrights are struggling to adapt to this social change. The Internet is a structure that defies the idea of single authorship and hypertext and hypermedia are the media that are effecting this change.\n\n\n

As noted by Bromme and Stahl (2002) one of the most important factors defining successful learning relative to reception of information from a hypertext environment is an “active and goal-oriented” approach. In the context of students as authors of hypertext environments there seems to be correlations to increased motivation and learning reception through student authorship. Further to this Bromme and Stahl (2002) note that hypertext authorship is likely to support “knowledge transforming” relative to three distinct environmental characteristics:\n\na) The development of “writing nodes” or nodes of information that are composed by the learner. Each node requires the learner think about its distinct attributes and characteristics that distinguish it conceptually from other nodes.\nb) The creation of links require the author develops correlational or associated semantic connections between concepts, subjects or knowledge domains.\nc) The author must consider the overall structural continuity of a hypertext environment. The “total structure” requires a cognitive awareness on behalf of the author as to establishing coherence, uniformity and also flexibility/adaptation for the anticipated audience.\n\nAnother interesting and important feature of hypermedia and hypertext is the concept of the student as a designer. Design principles, whether structural or artistic, are reflected in the learners’ active and conscious choices as to content or the presentation of content itself. Unlike most traditional media students must consider and implement design elements such as to page layout, font (type, size, color), use of space & color, use of images, positioning of links, and potential artistic embellishments. Based on my own experiences teaching web page development in the classroom, I would suggest that the design elements of hypertext and hypermedia are strongly motivational and reinforce both the creative and cognitive processes of the ‘student as author’. Jonassen and Reeves (1998) note the importance of learners as designers and designers and learners in their article Learning with technology: using computers as cognitive tools. In fact they go so far as to state:\n\n“We contend that students are likely to learn more by constructing hypermedia instructional materials that by studying hypermedia created by others” (Jonassen & Reeves, P. 704, 1998). \n\n \nAuthorship of hypertext and hypermedia environments studies also seem to substantiate principles of Cognitive Flexibility Theory in that the creation of multi-faceted, nodal complex problem structures facilitate both knowledge acquisition and transfer (transferring one conceptual framework or idea to another context) (Bromme and Stahl, 2002)\n

Studies based from the research from Dillon and Gabbard (1998) show that in the context of learning reception (reading) hypertext has failed to prove itself any more (or less) effective than traditional media. Variables such as a student’s prior knowledge, ability and the instructional design of learning resources effect educational outcomes in a hypertext or hypermedia environment just as they do in traditional media environments. As hypertext and hypermedia seem bound by the same restrictions that limit traditional educational media they cannot be (at this point) considered any better for imparting information, developing understanding, or facilitating learning reception. Depending on the user, there can also be mitigating factors such as the screen size, scrolling of text, size & color of font and navigation issues (Shapiro & Niederhauser, 2004) Nevertheless, these issues do not address the benefits of how well structured instruction or methods/techniques of instruction can facilitate learning with hypertext or hypermedia. There is research that has suggested learning from hypertext can be effective given certain learning conditions are present. Bromme and Stahl (2002) note that one of the most important factors that define successful learning reception in a hypertext environment is an active and goal-oriented approach. Personal interests and user-defined goals foster intrinsic and active self-regulation in learning. Other research studies have addressed self-regulated learning through different types of educational scaffolding. Azevedo (2005) conducted a research study that looked at how different scaffolding models facilitated student learning using hypermedia. Using the Microsoft application Encarta Reference Suite to learn about the circulatory system, Azevedo separated 111 students into three study groups; an adaptive scaffolding (AS) group who received guided tutoring throughout the activity, a fixed scaffolding (FS) group who received fix prompts and a sequenced ‘study guide’ and a third group that received no scaffolding (NS). The groups were all informed that they were to learn as much as they could about the circulatory system in a set period of time (40 min). Results were base-lined by pre and post texts that were given to each group and student interviews recorded how and what the students had learned. \n\n So what were the results?\n\nInterestingly enough the fixed scaffolding (FS) group did the poorest and showed the least gains from pre-test to post-text. Azevedo (2004) noted the students in this group “learned by engaging in goal-directed searching, skipping, selecting new informational sources, and free searching” (p.401). In other words the students were learning just what they needed to know. In contrast the no scaffolding group (NS) did better relative to pre to post test results. In this group Azevedo (2004) noted the students regulated their learning by “re-reading text, taking notes and engaging in knowledge elaboration” (p.401) Finally the group that showed the greatest gains was the Adaptive scaffolding group. This result in itself is not surprising in that the students each had a tutor to help them individually throughout their learning. Azevedo (2004) noted student tutors were able to “monitor and diagnose the student’s emerging understanding and provide timely scaffolding during learning” (p.387)\n\nRegardless of whether or not hypertext is any more effective for student learning reception the issue of accessibility distinguish it as a powerful resource tool; the internet provides a vast repository of hyperlinked resources, allowing immediate access to a wealth of information. Accessibility also presents potential educational issues and problems. This access to information is also dependant on two very important factors, the ability to find related information through key word searches and the ability to critically analyze the validity of the hypertext information itself. It is not enough that that the student has an adequate general knowledge of the subject area to search for related concepts, the student must be adequately prepared as a critical thinker to analyze the technical aspects of the site, the authority of the writer and the validity of the content presented. Once a site is accessed a student must also define if the site provides the information they need to solve their information problem; and if the problem is not solved, how the process could be varied to obtain more successful results. These analytical processes require greater cognitive demands than most traditional media and in essence show both potential and problems when using the Internet as an information resource. (O’Sullivan and Scott, 2000)\n